Ralph Waldo Emerson Essay Example for Free

Ralph Waldo Emerson Essay Note: Nineteenth Century American Transcendentalism is not a religion (in the traditional sense of the word); it is a pragmatic philosophy, a state of mind, and a form of spirituality. It is not a religion because it does not adhere to the three concepts common in major religions: a. a belief in a God; b. a belief in an afterlife (dualism); and c. a belief that this life has consequences on the next (if youre good in this life, you go to heaven in the next, etc. ). Transcendentalism is monist; it does not reject an afterlife, but its emphasis is on this life. The Assumed, Presumed, or the Self-Identified Transcendentalists: Central Points of Agreement: NOTE: The Transcendentalists, in keeping with the individualistic nature of this philosophy, disagreed readily with each other. Here are four points of general agreement: Basic Assumption: The intuitive faculty, instead of the rational or sensical, became the means for a conscious union of the individual psyche (known in Sanskrit as Atman) with the world psyche also known as the Oversoul, life-force, prime mover and God (known in Sanskrit as Brahma). Basic Premises: 1. An individual is the spiritual center of the universe and in an individual can be found the clue to nature, history and, ultimately, the cosmos itself. It is not a rejection of the existence of God, but a preference to explain an individual and the world in terms of an individual. 2. The structure of the universe literally duplicates the structure of the individual self all knowledge, therefore, begins with self-knowledge. This is similar to Aristotles dictum know thyself. 3. Transcendentalists accepted the neo-Platonic conception of nature as a living mystery, full of signs nature is symbolic. 4. The belief that individual virtue and happiness depend upon self-realization this depends upon the reconciliation of two universal psychological tendencies: a. the expansive or self-transcending tendency a desire to embrace the whole world to know and become one with the world. b. the contracting or self-asserting tendency the desire to withdraw, remain unique and separate an egotistical existence. Correspondence. It is a concept which suggests that the external is united with the internal. Physical or material nature is neutral or indifferent or objective; it is neither helpful nor hurtful; it is neither beautiful nor ugly. What makes one give such attributes to nature is that individuals imposition of her/his temperament or mood or psyche. If Im feeling lousy, I may dismiss a gorgeous day; if Im feeling bright and cheerful then the most dreary of days becomes tolerable. And so, the Transcendentalists believed that knowing yourself and studying nature is the same activity. Nature mirrors our psyche. If I cannot understand myself, may be understanding nature will help. Here is Darrel Abels take on this concept: Since one divine character was immanent everywhere in nature and in man, mans reason could discern the spiritual ideas in nature and his senses could register impressions of the material forms of nature. To man the subject, nature the object, which shared the same divine constitution as himself, presented external images to the innate ideas in his soul. (American Literature, Vol. 2, 1963, 4-5. ) Transcendentalism and the American Past. Transcendentalism as a movement is rooted in the American past: To Puritanism it owed its pervasive morality and the doctrine of divine light. It is also similar to the Quaker inner light. However, both these concepts assume acts of God, whereas intuition is an act of an individual. In Unitarianism, deity was reduced to a kind of immanent principle in every person an individual was the true source of moral light. To Romanticism it owed the concept of nature as a living mystery and not a clockwork universe (deism) which is fixed and permanent. A subtle chain of countless rings The next unto the farthest brings; The eye reads omens where it goes, And speaks all languages the rose; And, striving to be man, the worm Mounts through all the spires of form. Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nature, 1836 Transcendentalism was a 1. spiritual, 2. philosophical and 3. literary movement and is located in the history of American Thought as (a). Post-Unitarian and free thinking in religious spirituality (b). Kantian and idealistic in philosophy and (c). Romantic and individualistic in literature. A Brief Chronology of Events. †¢ 1832 Emerson resigns the ministry of the Unitarian Church unable to administer the holy communion. †¢ 1836 The annus mirabilis of the movement, during which Emerson published Nature (the gospel of transcendentalism); George Ripley published Discourses on the Philosophy of Religion; Orestes Brownson published New Views of Christianity, Society, and Church; Bronson Alcott published Record of Conversions in the Gospel (based on classroom discussions in his Temple School in Boston, and provoking severe criticism); the Transcendental Club, also known as Hedges Club, met for the first time. †¢ 1837 Emerson delivers his Phi Beta Kappa address on The American Scholar at Harvard, which James Russell Lowell called an event without former parallel in our literary annals. †¢ 1838 Emerson delivers his Divinity School Address at Harvard which touched off a great storm in religious circles. †¢ 1840 The founding of the Dial, a Transcendental magazine, which enjoyed its obscurity, to use Emersons words, for four years. †¢ 1841 The launching of George Ripleys Brook Farm a utopian experiment. Hawthorne was a resident there for a short time and wrote The Blithedale Romance based upon his experience there. †¢ 1842 Alcotts utopian experiment at Fruitlands. †¢ 1845 Thoreau goes to live at Walden Pond. †¢ 1846 Thoreau is put in jail for his refusal to pay poll tax. †¢ 1850 Passage of the Fugitive Slave Act. The Transcendentalists found themselves increasingly involved in abolition of slavery. †¢ 1855 Walt Whitman publishes his Leaves of Grass. †¢ 1859 Charles Darwins Origin of Species is published. †¢ 1862 Henry David Thoreau dies. Basic Tenets of American Transcendentalism: Note: This list must not be considered to be a creed common to all transcendentalists. It is merely a grouping of certain important concepts shared by many of them. †¢ 1. Transcendentalism, essentially, is a form of idealism. †¢ 2. The transcendentalist transcends or rises above the lower animalistic impulses of life (animal drives) and moves from the rational to a spiritual realm. †¢ 3. The human soul is part of the Oversoul or universal spirit (or float for Whitman) to which it and other souls return at death. †¢ 4. Therefore, every individual is to be respected because everyone has a portion of that Oversoul (God). †¢ 5. This Oversoul or Life Force or God can be found everywhere travel to holy places is, therefore, not necessary. 6. God can be found in both nature and human nature (Nature, Emerson stated, has spiritual manifestations). †¢ 7. Jesus also had part of God in himself he was divine as everyone is divine except in that he lived an exemplary and transcendental life and made the best use of that Power which is within each one. †¢ 8. Miracle is monster. The miracles of the Bible are not to be regarded as important as they were to the people of the past. Miracles are all about us the whole world is a miracle and the smallest creature is one. A mouse is a miracle enough to stagger quintillions of infidels. Whitman †¢ 9. More important than a concern about the afterlife, should be a concern for this life the one thing in the world of value is the active soul. Emerson †¢ 10. Death is never to be feared, for at death the soul merely passes to the oversoul. †¢ 11. Emphasis should be placed on the here and now. Give me one world at a time. Thoreau †¢ 12. Evil is a negative merely an absence of good. Light is more powerful than darkness because one ray of light penetrates the dark. †¢ 13. Power is to be obtained by defying fate or predestination, which seem to work against humans, by exercising ones own spiritual and moral strength. Emphasis on self-reliance. †¢ 14. Hence, the emphasis is placed on a human thinking. †¢ 15. The transcendentalists see the necessity of examples of great leaders, writers, philosophers, and others, to show what an individual can become through thinking and action. †¢ 16. It is foolish to worry about consistency, because what an intelligent person believes tomorrow, if he/she trusts oneself, tomorrow may be completely different from what that person thinks and believes today. A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds. Emerson †¢ 17. The unity of life and universe must be realized. There is a relationship between all things. †¢ 18. One must have faith in intuition, for no church or creed can communicate truth. †¢ 19. Reform must not be emphasized true reform comes from within. Reasons for the Rise of American Transcendentalism There was no one precise cause for the beginning of Transcendentalism. According to Paul Boller, chance, coincidence and several independent events, thoughts and tendencies seemed to have converged in the 1830s in New England. Some of these were: †¢ 1. The steady erosion of Calvinism. †¢ 2. The progressive secularization of modern thought under the impact of science and technology. †¢ 3. The emergence of a Unitarian intelligentsia with the means, leisure, and training to pursue literature and scholarship. †¢ 4. The increasing insipidity and irrelevance of liberal religion to questing young minds lack of involvement in womens rights and abolitionism. †¢ 5. The intrusion of the machine into the New England garden and the disruption of the old order by the burgeoning industrialism. †¢ 6. The impact of European ideas on Americans traveling abroad. †¢ 7. The appearance of talented and energetic young people like Emerson, Fuller, and Thoreau on the scene. †¢ 8. The imperatives of logic itself for those who take ideas seriously the impossibility, for instance, of accepting modern science without revising traditional religious views. Important ideas from: Warren, Robert Penn, Cleanth Brooks, and R. W. B. Lewis. A National Literature and Romantic Individualism. in Romanticism. eds. James Barbour and Thomas Quirk. NY: Garland, 1986, 3-24. 1. Transcendentalism was a philosophical, literary, social, and theological movement. 2. Its origin is traced to the relaxing of Puritan Calvinism into Unitarianism a belief very much like Deism. From its early liberalism, Unitarianism developed, for some of the young intellectuals, into a new orthodoxy of smug social conformity that denied the spiritual and emotional depths of experience corpse-cold Unitarianism, as Emerson was to call it. (11) 3. German and English Romanticism provided some inspiration towards the search for some deeper truth. 4. Transcendentalism represented a complex response to the democratization of American life, to the rise of science and the new technology, and to the new industrialism to the whole question, in short, of the redefinition of the relation of man to nature and to other men that was being demanded by the course of history. (11-12) 5. Influences: a. From Plato came the idealism according to which reality subsists beyond the appearances of the world. Plato also suggests that the world is an expression of spirit, or mind, which is sheer intelligibility and therefore good. b. From Immanuel Kant came the notion of the native spontaneity of the human mind against the passive conception of the 18th c. sensational theory (also known as the philosophy of empiricism of John Locke and David Hume; the concept that the mind begins as a tabula rasa and that all knowledge develops from sensation). c. From Coleridge came the importance of wonder, of antirationalism, and the importance of individual consciousness. d. From Puritanism came the ethical seriousness and the aspect of Jonathan Edwards that suggested that an individual can receive divine light immediately and directly. 6. Transcendentalism was, at its core, a philosophy of naked individualism, aimed at the creation of the new American, the self-reliant man, complete and independent. (22) 7. The achievement of the transcendentalists has a grandeur. They did confront, and helped define, the great issues of their time, and if they did not resolve those issues, we of the late twentieth century, who have not yet resolved them, are in no position to look down our noses at their effort. (23) Towards a Definition of Transcendentalism: A Few Comments: from Henry David Gray, Emerson: A Statement of N. E. Transcendentalism as Expressed in the Philosophy of Its Chief Exponent, 1917 1. The spirit of the time is in every form a protest against usage and a search for principles. Emerson in the opening number of The Dial. 2. I was given to understand that whatever was unintelligible would be certainly Transcendental. Charles Dickens in American Notes 3. I should have told them at once that I was a transcendentalist. That would have been the shortest way of telling them that they would not understand my explanations. Thoreau, Journal, V:4 4. The word Transcendentalism, as used at the present day, has two applications. One of which is popular and indefinite, the other, philosophical and precise. In the former sense it describes man, rather than opinions, since it is freely extended to those who hold opinions, not only diverse from each other, but directly opposed. Noah Porter, 1842 5. Transcendentalism is the recognition in man of the capacity of knowing truth intuitively, or of attaining a scientific knowledge of an order of existence transcending the reach of the senses, and of which we can have no sensible experience. J. A. Saxton, Dial II: 90 6. Literally a passing beyond all media in the approach to the Deity, Transcendentalism contained an effort to establish, mainly by the discipline of the intuitive faculty, direct intercourse between the soul and God. Charles J. Woodbury in Talks with Ralph Waldo Emerson 7. Transcendentalism was not speculative, but essentially practical and reformatory. John Orr in The Transcendentalism of New England, International Review, XIII: 390 8. Transcendentalism was a distinct philosophical system. Practically it was an assertion of the inalienable worth of man; theoretically it was an assertion of the immanence of divinity in instinct, the transference of supernatural attributes to the natural constitution of mankind. Transcendentalism is usually spoken of as a philosophy. It is more justly regarded as a gospel. As a philosophy it is so far from uniform, that it may rather be considered several systems than one. Transcendentalism was an enthusiasm, a wave of sentiment, a breath of mind. O. B. Frothingham in Transcendentalism in New England, 1876 9. The problem of transcendental philosophy is no less than this, to revise the experience of mankind and try its teachings by the nature of mankind, to test ethics by conscience, science by reason; to try the creeds of the churches, the constitution of the states, by the constitution of the universe. Theodore Parker in Works VI: 37 10. We feel it to be a solemn duty to warn our readers, and in our measure, the public, against this German atheism, which the spirit of darkness is employing ministers of the gospel to smuggle in among us under false pretenses. Princeton Review XII: 71 11. Protestantism ends in Transcendentalism. Orestes Brownson in Works, 209 12. The fundamentals of Transcendentalism are to be felt as sentiments, or grasped by the imagination as poetical wholes, rather than set down in propositions. Cabot, A Memoir of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1887, I: 248 13. First and foremost, it can only be rightly conceived as an intellectual, aesthetic, and spiritual ferment, not a strictly reasoned doctrine. It was a renaissance of conscious, living faith in the power of reason, in the reality of spiritual insight, in the privilege, beauty, and glory of life. Frances Tiffany, Transcendentalism: The New England Renaissance, Unitarian Review, XXXI: 111. 14. The Transcendentalist adopts the whole connection of spiritual doctrine. If there is anything grand or daring in human thought or virtue, any reliance on the vast, the unknown; any presentiment, any extravagance of faith, the spiritualist adopts it as most in nature. The oriental mind has always tended to this largeness. Buddhism is an expression of it. The Buddhist is a Transcendentalist. Shall we say then that Transcendentalism is the Saturnalia or excess of Faith; the presentiment of a faith proper to man in his integrity, excessive only when his imperfect obedience hinders the satisfaction of his wish? Ralph Waldo Emersons lecture on The Transcendentalist, Works I: 317-320 15. (Transcendentalism was) a blending of Platonic metaphysics and the Puritan spirit, of a philosophy and a character taking place at a definite time, in a specially fertilized soil, under particular conditions. H. C. Goddard, Studies in New England Transcendentalism, 1908. 16. If I were a Bostonian, I think I would be a Transcendentalist. Charles Dickens in American Notes.

Corporate Social Responsibility In Mauritius Accounting Essay

Corporate Social Responsibility In Mauritius Accounting Essay ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to scrutinize the current practice of CSR that firms in the financial sector and the tourism sector, more precisely banks and hotels, have to engage themselves in CSR activities and to investigate the relationship between CSR and financial performance. In Mauritius Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has gained much popularity and has become a subject of concern, after that the government has introduced an innovative legislation about CSR. Previous research on the topic is reviewed, the engagement of Firm in CSR. This study by means of questionnaires, also tries to investigate their motivations behind investing in CSR. Data collected was then analyzed using SPSS. The results highlighted that there are no differences between banks and hotels in the motives to engage in CSR activities. The results also highlighted that there is a relationship between CSR and Financial performance. Also the implications of other findings are discussed and the study conclud es with its limitations and directions for future research. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION OVERVIEW OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (CSR) Mauritius since Post- colonial independence, the country over the last four decades have seen the mono-crop sugar island, our first pillar of the economy has significantly moved from the Sugar industry to Financial services industry on large scale offshore financial institutions from multinational companies to local industries, such as the Giant of Rogers Group, Air Mauritius, Island Blyth, Floreal Textile, Mauritius Commercial Bank (MCB), Barclays Bank, HSBC and others. The field of Corporate Social Responsibility has developed exponentially in the last decades. In the past two decades, CSR appears to have become more omnipresent and perceived as being actually pertinent to companies all over the world (Aras and Crowther, 2008). It is at the forefront of strategic outlook of contemporary organisations of all kinds. A larger number of companies than at any time before are engaged in a serious efforts to define and incorporate CSR into all facets of their businesses. In recent years a great deal of time and attention has been devoted to the concept of corporate social responsibility. This basis has considered it necessary to take notice not only of the economic and financial transactions in a company, but also the social and environmental consequences a business places on its shareholders and society as well as the ecological footprint in all aspects of their operations, which extends beyond their statutory obligation to comply with legislation. CSR has variously been described as a motherhood issue (Ryan 2002, p. 302) the hot business issue of the noughties (Blyth 2005, p. 30) and the talk of the town in corporate circles these days (Mees Bonham 2004). In fact, the last few decades have seen a rise in awareness on behalf of corporate bodies, on the issue that they have a moral duty to give something back to the society. This rise in awareness is plausibly the effect of the recent corporate scandals involving well reputed companies, such as Enron, Parmalat and WorldCom as well as the growing impact of climate change on the environment. One of the fundamental questions still to be answered concerns the effect of corporate socially responsible behavior on profitability. The answers one finds in the specialized literature are numerous and often contradictory. Views emerging from Corporate Social Responsibility can contribute to the financial performance of a company. This approach, has been described as enlightened shareholder approach, believes that corporate decision makers must consider a range of social and environmental matters if they are to maximize long term financial returns. Even if they sometimes can be, CSR initiatives are certainly not always compatible with other organizational strategic goals (namely growth and money-making).(McWilliams, Siegel, Wright, 2006). Even though the link between CSR and corporate performance remains tenuous (Lindgreen, Swaen, Johnston, 2009), companies are following to CSR principles and practices and incorporating CSR principles and aims into their overall corporate strategy in exponential numbers (Godfrey Hatch, 2007; Lee, 2008; C. Smith, 2003). Similarly, as those major scandals have undeniably raised the view of greediness among senior managers, CSR is also seen as a tool for counteracting allegation of corporate greed (Deloitte report, 2008). Each company integrates Corporate Social Responsibility differently. The differences depend on factors such as companys size, the specific industry involved, the firms culture, stakeholder demands, and how progressive the company is in engaging CSR. Some companies concentrate on areas which they consider more important for them, for example human rights or environment while others incorporate CSR in all aspects fields of their operations. CSR IN MAURITIUS CSR initiatives go quite a long way in corporate Mauritius up to 20 years back. According to a report by Deloitte et al. (2008), it was found that the contribution in CSR has ongoing at varying period for the companies surveyed. Many enterprises are involved in CSR initiatives for the welfare of their employees and the society. Due to Government limited means to handle todays social problem, an appeal was made to the private sector in July 2009 to spend 2% of their profits to CSR activities. Government suggested that all gains from various companies regardless of their size should invest part of their profit into non profitable organization such as charity, scientific research and wild life to restore and preserve nature in order to maintain a good balance in the ecological system which means to give back to nature. Moreover, the government has set up a national CSR committee comprising of representative members from the public sector, private sector and the civil society. Additional ly, the companies need the approval of the CSR committee before the application or investment in any CSR activity. In the occurrence that a company has not spent the total amount of the compulsory two per cent of its profit, it should remit the remaining amount to the MRA. PROBLEM STATEMENT CSR is nowadays gaining more and more importance especially after the major corporate scandals and due to changes in norms held by the general public. Such changes have given rise of the interest in the field of CSR. However, most studies have concentrated mostly on the consequences or end results of engaging in CSR activities. Furthermore many researchers have worked to find any empirical relationship between CSR and financial performance. Various Studies have identified different kinds of relationship (positive, negative, no relationship), but currently there is no clear empirical relationship. CSR is problematic as it is often perceived that there is a contrast between CSR activity and  ¬Ã‚ nancial performance with one being harmful to the other and companies having an authoritative to follow shareholder value. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The main goal of the study is to scrutinize the current practice of CSR and what are the motivations that lead firms to engage in CSR activities. The study also aims at evaluating the relationship between turnover and level of CSR activities undertaken. This is an issue which has been the subject of an ongoing debate and has become a topic of concern, in the Mauritian context, especially after that the local government revised legislation making investment in CSR activities compulsory. Objectives of the study: Objective 1: To investigate the current practice of CSR conducted by banks and hotels. Objective 2: To investigate what factors motivate firms to increase their involvement in CSR Objective 3: To investigate how these firms benefited from conducting CSR Objective 4: To investigate the differences between firms in different sector of operation in the reasons to engage in CSR activities. Objective 5: To investigate whether there is a relationship between level of CSR activities undertaken and Financial performance. OUTLINE OF THE STUDY Chapter One: Introduction This chapter consists of general overview of CSR. It provides a brief overview of the growing importance of CSR in a general as well as in the context of Mauritius. It consists the problem statement along with the aims and objectives. Chapter Two: Literature Review This chapter consists of reviewing the existing literature by examining diverse articles pertaining to the subject matter. The literature review helps to have a better understanding of what different researchers found on CSR. Chapter Three: Research Methodology This particular chapter describes who are the target population for this survey, what is the sample size, what are the procedures and techniques used for data collection, the methods used to analyze the data to get results and limitation of the study. Chapter Four: Results and Discussions This chapter shows how the collected data is analyzed by carrying out various tests. Chapter Five: Conclusions and Recommendation In this chapter, conclusions are derived from the study and some recommendations are mentioned forward. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBLE A DEFINITION Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a fast-growing facets of organizations. The European Commission defines CSR as a concept whereby companies decide voluntarily to contribute to a better society and a cleaner environment. (Simms 2002). Adams and Zutshi (2004) define it as the integration of business operations and values whereby the interest of all stakeholders including customers, employees, investors and the environment are reflected in an organisations actions and policies. In present concept of CSR states that the business enterprises is in their usual process of business decision making should pay due attention to the social interests of the people in the community. A company is not only an economic entity but a social and political entity also. Most of the decisions taken by businesses not only affect the stockholders but also the stakeholders namely, creditors, debtors, employees and the society at large in one way or the other. ( Kapoor and Sandhu, 2010). CSR is nowadays gaining more and more importance especially after the major events such as the collapse of Enron and the James Hardieasbestos scandal in Australia and due to changes in norms held by the general public. The argument about the place of CSR in the global economy continues with Solomons opinion that multinational corporations should take responsibility for the improvement of world-wide social and environmental conditions. (Scherer and Smid in Windsor 2001, p. 245). CSR is also looked upon as an umbrella term, including many other business concepts and social practices. Synonymous with some and overlapping a few others, CSR indicates the concept of common relations between businesses and society the world over. Businesses, however small or large, are governed by their place in society and have to take into account the responsibility they bear to the society, people and environment within which they operate. Economist Theodore Levitt criticizes in the Harvard Business Review that is no longer fashionable for the corporation to take gleeful pride in making money. What fashionable for the corporation to show that it exists to serve the public (Time, 2008). It is now being more and more realized world over that a firm cannot afford to function and continue in the long run unless it performs in a legitimate and socially responsible way. Moreover, many recent definitions draw attention to the financial benefits gained through CSR. For example, Vaaland et al (2008, p. 931) explain CSR as management of stakeholder concern for responsible and irresponsible acts related to environmental, ethical and social phenomena in a way that creates corporate benefit. While Mittal et al (2008, p. 1437) define the concept as a business approach that views respect for ethics, people, communities and the environment as an integral strategy that improves the competitive position of a firm. Hence, it is important to understand the point that, whether corporations appreciate it or not, herein lies the idea of CSR. The matter is not that of profit earning alone for a corporation, but that of looking beyond the profit-making attitude. This awareness has made corporations identify the need of CSR and its application along with their particular businesses (Gupta and Saxena, 2006). Economics drivers of CSR Researchers have identified different method in which CSR approach to business decision making may lead to better financial performance. The following economic drivers have been viewed by the World Economic Forum and Business in the Community that have explained the adoption of the concept corporate social responsibility by companies around the world (ADL 2003). It is advocated that these drivers do not operate in isolation, and that different companies may have different drivers. Several drivers may also be stronger in different areas and for different companies. An alteration to adopt corporate social responsibility may arise from a combination economics of drivers. Employee recruitment, motivation and retention Recent studies show that corporate social responsibility is more and more an important factor in attracting and retaining a brilliant and diverse workforce (Globescan Inc 2005). Companies that cater for the interests of their employees by offering good working conditions will attain better performance in terms of quality and delivery, and, thus, experience higher levels of productivity. Learning and innovation Learning and innovation are serious to the long-term survival of any business. Corporate social responsibility can be a vehicle for business to respond to environmental and social risks and turn these into business prospects. Reputation management Businesses function in a market of opinion. Depending on the judgment by customers, suppliers and the broader community on companies will have an impact on their profitability and achievement. Corporate social responsibility offers a means by which companies can manage and influence the attitudes and opinions of their stakeholders, building their trust and enabling the benefits of positive relationships to deliver business advantage. Risk profile and risk management Corporate social responsibility offers more effective management of risk, helping companies to reduce unnecessary losses, identify new emerging issues and use positions of headship as a means to gain competitive advantage. Investor relations and access to capital The investment community is increasingly viewing corporate social responsibility as similar to long-term risk management and good governance practices. Recent studies show that analysts place as much emphasis on corporate reputation as they do on financial performance (Hill Knowltown 2006). Licence to operate A Global Outlook Companies that fail to accomplish their duties to society as a whole risk losing their licence to operate a concept whereby a companys stakeholders grant the company an unwritten authority to do business. This may be supported by favoring competitors, refuses or calls for deregistration. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIEVS OF CSR IN PRACTICE CSR activities and practice used are not intended to be exactly the same in different companies. Companies have diverse resources and all cannot take responsibility to the same extent. According to Lantos (2001), organizations may practice three different forms of CSR namely: Ethical CSR It means going beyond the firms economic and legal obligations and take actions that is morally mandatory. A corporation is morally responsible towards any individual or group that might be harmed or injured by a particular course of action. For example; reduce shareholders profits and used the money to decrease pollution. Ethical CSR may in the long-run generate goodwill by building the publics trust in the company. This will probably minimize the cost of fines and also bad publication that otherwise may prevail from unethical behaviour. Strategic CSR It is an activity where there is a win-win situation. Both the company and some of the stakeholder will benefit. This type of CSR actions implies short-run sacrifices which will usually result in long-run gains. For example, Ford campaigned that children should be seated in booster-seats and gave away millions of such seats. This generated goodwill among customers and government regulators. They believe that the investment will be profitable in the end. Altruistic CSR. It is when organizations are contributing to the common good and making the Society a better place on some sort of expense of the firm, involving corporate competences of the company to societal and community needs. Altruistic CSR goes beyond ethics and are actions that are not necessary for the company to take. The company does not expect any financial gain from it. Examples of altruistic CSR are activities that aid the society to fight drug and alcohol problems, poverty, crimes and chronic unemployment. The three approaches are mutually exclusive and based on the activities nature (required or optional) and the purpose (stakeholders good, firms good), or both. Today businesses are facing high competition which many firms want to perceive as best quality or valuable in customer perception. Moreover, the number of multinational companies has been increasing each year and it demanded a higher responsibility for social, environmental and economic. As the result, the influence of Sustainable Development is growing and accepted from all people. Moreover, due to the environmental issue, many researchers are concerned about environment that many natural resources can be run out if we do not use it wisely. CSR emphasizes the concern of corporate action and accomplishment in the social sphere with a performance perspective, it is clear that firms must formulate and implement social goals and programs as well as integrate ethic sensitivity into decision making, policies, and actions(Carrol,1991). As in the present time, CSR turns peoples attention to be the perception of the corporate engagement, in terms of how well corporate is able to engage with stakeholders. Current practice of CSR worldwide In practice much of the business activity that has been labeled as CSR has been determined by the concerns of investors, companies and consumers based in the worlds richest countries. National CSR agenda in middle and low income countries have been less viewed internationally. For the past five years or so, governments, companies and NGOs in many middle and low income countries have implemented CSR program from developed countries through greater direct engagement. CSR activities have developed in countries such as China, India, South Africa, the Philippines, Brazil and others. Governments in middle income countries have pressed companies to engage in summiting these tasks, as with Black Economic Empowerment in South Africa encouragement of business efforts to reduce poverty in the Philippines. CSR has also potential link with government strategies aiming at ensuring better access of certain categories of citizens to the economy. One example of such strategy is the Citizen Economic empowerment in Zambia, which aims in particular at increasing local participation in economic activities. With detail to developing countries, one major CSR concern is that government will ignore corporate irresponsibility or refuse to enforce protective efforts or environmental criteria in the law as an incentive to foreign investment (Aman, 2001). China for instance, has heavy-duty to collective negotiations, by law, and yet many people in jail for trying to use those rights (Diamond, 2003). Yet some developing country governments are transmitting laws requiring higher standards of responsible environmental or social ways in order to compete for foreign capital and institutional investment, in addition to competing on the more familiar rule of law issues of contract and property law rights, financial transparency and reduced government corruption (Hebb and Wojcik, 2004). Comparing these legal improvements in different emerging countries would be further helpful in understanding the contribution of CSR. Chapple and Moon (2005), have found that CSR in Asia is unrelated to preexisting levels of economic development but is related to the extent to which domestic companies engage in international trade, even where that trade is with other Asian nations. THE CURRENT PRACTICE OF CSR BY BANKS AND HOTELS IN MAURITIUS Mauritius is the first country in the world to require businesses to donate a portion of their profits to NGOs or government projects in the name of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).  Apparently recognising the poor level of corporate citizenship in Mauritius, in 2009, the Ministry of Finance introduced the CSR Fund. A company using a Corporate Partner to implement its CSR programme will be allowed to spend only an amount not exceeding 25% of the CSR Fund. A company implementing CSR programme is eligible to administrative costs not exceeding 15% of the CSR value. The company is provided a 12 months period from the end of its financial year to fund project from its CSR fund. If it has not given the 2% CSR fund then they will have to submit it to the MRA. The corporate programme form and Declaration by Applicant is presented below in Appendix D. Banks in Mauritius especially the leading one such as Mauritius Commercial Bank (MCB), State Bank of Mauritius (SBM), HSBC, Barclays and such that, invest huge amount of money in CSR. Not only Banks but also in the Hotel sector invest in CSR. The role plays by some Banks and Hotels in CSR are briefly described below; Mauritius Commercial Bank (MCB) J.Francois (2012), of the MCB Forward Foundation, in the Mauritius lexpress Journal talk about A CSR Budget of Rs 45 millions. The creation of the MCB foundation in 2010 was a step in the development of CSR activities of the group. Since its creation, MCB has always affirmed as a bank with a heart. The foundation gather dedicated professionals concentrated only on CSR and handle projects in medium and long terms. Moreover in 2007-2008, Rs23 millions have dedicated to CSR. In 2008-2009, it has been increased up to Rs30 millions. According to J. Francois (2012) the CSR budget varies with their profits. For the Financial year of 2009-2010, they predicted about Rs45 millions. They invest the money of CSR mainly in Eradication of Poverty, Vulnerable Children, Education, and Environment. The value proposition of the Foundation is described below. MCB Forward Foundation Why the Foundation To help meet the social and environment challenges of the country Mission To develop and support sustainable initiatives for the benefit of the community in which we live and work Vision To be instrumental in the creation of sustainable value for the social, environmental and economic well-being of the community HSBC Mauritius HSBC Mauritius has continued to invest in education, poverty alleviation and environmental sustainability. In the year ending December 2011, the HSBC group in Mauritius has spent 6 million Rupees on community investment. In addition to sustaining communities, HSBC has been continuously involved in environmental sustainability. It also has a long partnership with The Mauritian Wildlife Foundation, engaged in preventing rare species. Sun Resort (including La pirogue, le Tousserouk, Long beach hotel and such that) Sun Resort Company has commitment towards corporate social responsibility programmes at both local and national level has proved to be a very influential tool for the advancement of local communities and unprivileged circles of the population. In 2010, the Sun Resorts Cancer Trust helped a number of children and their families in their fight against cancer. The company also has opened a four-bed Cancer Unit at Victoria Hospital in May 2009. Corporate Social Responsibility donations made by Sun Resort Ltd during the year 2010 amounted to Rs3.9 million. Apart from Hotels and Banks, there are other private companies such as Terra, Ireland Blyth Limited (IBL), Omnicane and such that, they invest much in CSR projects. For instance, the IBL Foundation has financed 80 projects costing Rs17, 9 million. Rs6, 7 million for the socio economic development, Rs6,4 million for education and Rs1,2 million for sports. Moreover, there is the Omnicane Foundation which have spent Rs11, 1 million for vulnerable children, Health care, Education, Eradication of Poverty and on environment. MOTIVATIONS FOR FIRMS TO ENGAGE IN CSR ACTIVITIES THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES The motivations for firms to engage themselves in CSR activities can thus be broadly viewed from two main perspectives which are strategic perspective and the moral perspective. Strategic motive linked with Agency theory Agency theory put emphasis on the point that managers are recruited in order to work for the company that employs them, thus their major duty is to maximize the value of the firm and therefore the wealth of those who possess the company. Moreover, from an agency theory perspective, engagement in CSR activities is often viewed as a misused of companys resources which could instead be used invest in projects where profits are maximized. Nevertheless, managers will invest in CSR activities only if such investment will help them to improve the reputation of the firm or simply help them to increase shareholders wealth (Jones, 1995). However an agency problem may occur because of concern that the agent (e.g, the internal or external recipients of funds) will not follow the interests of the principal (e.g., the donor) who wishes to pursue CSR activities (Husted Allen, 2007). Very often, managers are motivated by their self- interest and therefore cannot be relied on to work in the best int erest of shareholders. Strategic motive linked with the Resource-Based View Theory The Resource- Based View (RBV) theory regards CSR as a resource that firm must know how to exploit in order to gain competitive advantages over its competitors. According to Branco and Rodrigues (2006) the firm in this model, is viewed as a unique bundle of resources and capabilities that is developed overtime as the firm interacts with all its stakeholders. This theory assumes that firms are a set of various resources and competences that are not exchangeable among firms. THE MORAL MOTIVE LINKED TO THE NORMATIVE STAKEHOLDER THEORY The moral motive is also linked to the normative stakeholder theory, which is commonly known as intrinsic stakeholder commitment. Success of an organization, according to the stakeholder theory, depends on the ability of the firm to handle and manage its relationships with a number of constituents, such as financers, shareholders, customers, employees, suppliers and then community at large (Donaldson and Preston, 1995). According to Freeman (1984), managers also bear a fiduciary relationship to stakeholders instead of having solely fiduciary duties towards owners of the firm. Similarly, Donaldson and Preston (1995) defined stakeholders as persons or groups with legitimate interests in procedural and or substantive aspects of corporate activity. Thus, CSR is viewed as a means of fulfilling the duties that the company has towards its stakeholders, and therefore it is crucial that the firm engage itself in CSR activities that are significant to the stakeholders. However, the more influential stakeholders are, the more the company has to adjust itself to their demands and this has given rise to questions whether firms engage themselves in CSR activities because they really want to assume their social and moral responsibilities or this is done only to get strategic advantages such as to prevent any stakeholder from withdrawing their support to the firm. Meijer, Bakle, Smith Schuyt (2006) argued that despite the fact it is rational to presume that companies want to do good for the society, it is also true that managers of those companies realize that this will benefit their organizations as well. Thus, put in simpler terms even though reporting pure unselfish intentions, firms engage themselves in CSR from strategic perspectives. On the other hand, Graafland and Van de Ven (2006) exposed through their study that despite some firms strongly believed that engaging in CSR activities might lead to improvement in profitability, enhancement of reputation and more employee commitment, they were also much concerned with making the world a better place to live. BENEFITS OF ENGAGEMENT IN CSR ACTIVITIES This section will try to examine what are those advantages firms get by investing in social activities which, as many academics found, ultimately leads to improvement in the firms financial performance. According to Galbreath (2009), there are only three main benefits a firm can derive from investing in CSR activities and they are namely: increased customer satisfaction; reduced employee turnover and improved reputation; and. It is these benefits that will consequently lead to improvements in the financial performance of the company. Increased customer satisfaction Customers are one of the most important stakeholders of a firm and by meeting justice needs of customers, CSR is likely to increase customer satisfaction (Galbreath, 2009). Hence, customer satisfaction may lead to brand loyalty and consequently improve and increase future sales of the firm. Reduced employee turnover Employee turnover is of the essence since the loss of human capital in companies can have dramatic effects on competitive advantage of a company (Barney, 1991; Huselid, 1995). A key potential gain from CSR initiatives involves establishing the situation that can contribute to increasing the dedication and incentive of employees to become more innovative and dynamic. Galbreath (2009) found that, owing to demonstrated justice, socially responsive activities appear to be a means to reduce employee turnover. Turban and Greening (1997) found that demonstrating CSR is essential for attracting potential employees. In their study on French firms, Maignan and Ferrell (2001) found that CSR is positively linked with employee commitment. Companies employing CSR related perspectives and tools tend to be businesses that provide the prerequisite for increased loyalty and commitment form their staffs. Such conditions can facilitate recruitment of employees, retaining and motivating them to develop skills, reduce absenteeism, and may also translate into marginally less demands for higher wages (Deloitte Report, 2008). According to Galbreath (2009), firms that are unjust, that does not exhibit comportments that match with employees moral or ethical frameworks are prone to obtain negative results that affect profitability. Therefore, reducing employee turnover is crucial so that a firm can improve its performance. Improved reputation Moreo

Racism in America :: essays papers

Racism in America The Construction of an Institution For hundreds of years, it has been "truth" that the races were biologically different. The differences that separated society were based on scientifically based genetic differences that gave reason for the separation of races. However based on recent findings, it is known that this is not the case. In 1974 Richard Lewontin dispelled this myth with a study he did that proved that there are no genetic differences between races. In fact he discovered if anything, there were more differences within the "races" then between the different races. Why then, do we still have use for different races? Why is racism still rampant in American society? The reason is that although race is not founded through science, this institution of American society is merely an obsolete combination of historical, social, and cultural construction. Historically our physical differences supplied reason to separate into races. In doing this we see the emergence of races. Europeans marked individuals that looked different from them and used this difference as a justification for their reasoning that these individuals were inferior to them. To support their claims, there was "scientific research" done to explain our differences. These differences were said to be biological. As early as the 1800s scientists purported these ideas to be true. One doctor believed that blacks suffered from a form of leprosy. Because science is said to be so exact and indisputable, Americans held these theories to be truth and used them to construct the different classifications of race. These "biological" findings provided the basis for the most corrupt institution in America: racism. Through the classifying of people of color as inferior due to genetic reasoning, provided whites with an excuse to dominate. This social issue divided the coun try and served as a weapon to keep people of color in the minority and denied them of any economic or educational power that was necessary to survive in America. This social phenomenon further abused the "biological" differences to further oppress people of color. Race provided the perfect method of domination in America. To the dismay of racists around the country, a scientist decided to reevaluate the "genetic" differences between the races, that had been so cleverly constructed.

Utilitarianism vs. Kantianism Essay -- Papers Immanuel Kant Ethics Mor

Utilitarianism vs. Kantianism Ethics can be defined as "the conscious reflection on our moral beliefs with the aim of improving, extending or refining those beliefs in some way." (Dodds, Lecture 2) Kantian moral theory and Utilitarianism are two theories that attempt to answer the ethical nature of human beings. This paper will attempt to explain how and why Kantian moral theory and Utilitarianism differ as well as discuss why I believe Kant's theory provides a more plausible account of ethics. Immanuel Kant's deonotological ethical theory assesses if actions are moral based on the person's will or intention of acting. Kant's theory can be categorized as a deonotological because "actions are not assessed to be morally permissible on the basis of consequences they produce, but rather on the form of the agent's will in acting," (Dodds, Lecture 7) therefore his actions are based on duty and not consequential. Kantianism is based on three principles: maxims, willing, and the categorical imperative. Kant states that a maxim is a "general rule or principle which will explain what a person takes himself to be doing and the circumstances in which he takes himself to be doing it" (Feldman, 1999, 201). It is important that this principle be universalisable and that the maxim can be applied consistently to everyone that encounters similar situations, therefore willed as a universal law. The second aspect of Kant's theory is willing. This involves the agent consistently committing oneself to make an action occur. He states that, "In general, we can say that a person wills inconsistently if he wills that p be the case and he wills that q be the case and its impossible for p and q to be the case together" (Feldman, 1999, 203). T... ...nces. Kantianism focuses on the motivation of actions, has clear and distinct set of universal rules, and is morally logical. On the other hand, Utilitarianism relies on the consequences of an action, has no set universal laws as each action is assessed on an individual basis, and morality is based on the results of the assessment. Because of these reasons, I believe that Kantianism is the more ethically plausible theory of the two. Bibliography: Susan Dodds, Lecture 2 notes, 'Utilitarianism.' Susan Dodds, Lecture 7 notes, 'Kantianism.' Fred Feldman, 'Kant's Ethics Theory: Exposition and Critique' from H. J. Curzer, ed Ethical Theory and Moral Problems, Belmont, Ca: Wadsworth Publishing Co. 1999. J.S. Mill, 'What Utilitarianism Is' from Peter Y. Windt, An Introduction to Philosophy: Ideas in Conflict, St Paul, MN: West Publishing, 1982.

Progression of the Kouroi Essay -- Kouroi Greek Sculpture Essays

Progression of the Kouroi What is a kouros? In Greek, kouros means a young man. In art, a kouros is a statue of a young nude male who stands with his hands at his sides and one leg, usually his left, advanced. Throughout the Archaic period, which dates from 610 B.C. to 480 B.C., the basic pose of kouroi (plural for kouros) remained the same, though the anatomy of the figures gradually became more naturalistic or true to life. The ideology that the Greek sculptors wanted to achieve greater naturalism is proven through the progression of the kouroi during the period. At a glance, three main features deem the Getty Kouros under the general classification of a kouros: hands, hair, and feet. The hands are clenched into fists. They remain at the sides of the body. The hair is arranged in a grid-like pattern. Thus, each strand is perfectly vertical, while remaining horizontally equivalent. And the feet show the kouros standing with his left leg forward. There will be a discussion about the placement of the feet later. Before we get too much into the physical characterization of the kouros, let's first look at history of the Getty Kouros. In the spring of 1983, the "Getty Kouros" was offered to The J. Paul Getty Museum situated in Malibu, California. Inquiries were made to the Greek and Italian governments in order to determine if the statue was legally removed from the country of origin. On September 18, 1983, the Kouros arrived at the Museum in seven pieces along with documents claiming it had been in a private Swiss collection since the 1930s. For a period of twelve years after the arrival, art historians, conservators, and archeologists study the Kouros. Most of them believe that it is authentic for scientific t... ...the work. (246) Therefore, as long as the replica has the same qualities and presents the same effect to any viewer, then authenticity does not really matter. The Getty Kouros, whether replicated or authenticated, helps to portray the kouros in the Archaic period in Greek art. And to me, the spirit of the art and the actual comprehension of the kouros is what is important. Works Cited "The Disappointed Art Lover." writ. Francis Sparshott. The Forger's Art. gen. ed. Denis Dutton. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Panels in the exhibition "The Getty Kouros." Located in The J. Paul Getty Museum in Malibu, California. Stokstad, Marilyn. Volume One Art History. New York: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1995. "What is Wrong with a Forgery?" writ. Alfred Lessing. The Forger's Art. gen. ed. Denis Dutton. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.

Living in a Dream World: Fantasy and Social Hierarchy in Cheever’s “The Swimmer”

John Cheever’s short story, â€Å"The Swimmer,† describes the epic journey of Neddy Merrill as he attempts to swim his way back home. Throughout the story, readers continually question reality and fantasy while wondering whether Merrill is really experiencing what Cheever portrays or if he is simply stuck in the past. Merrill goes from house to house as he freestyles across each swimming pool along the way. As the story draws to the end, Cheever points out that Merrill’s world is not what it seems and he has really lost everything he loved. An analysis of â€Å"The Swimmer† by John Cheever through the liberal humanist and Marxist lenses suggests that the story is really about how our human desire to relive pass successes and the pursuit of materialism will eventually lead to downfall. Looking at â€Å"The Swimmer† through the liberal humanist lens suggests that the story is really about how living in a fantasy world and believing in a false youth will cause ignorance of reality and the loss identity. In the story, Neddy Merrill seems to be living in a fantasy world as he heavily drinks alcohol, socializes at parties, and attempts to swim through the neighborhood. The real world appears to be quite different for Neddy Merrill and the truth is not good for him. After one particular swim through a pool, Neddy Merrill notices something strange; â€Å"He dove in and swam the pool, but when he tried to haul himself up onto the curb he found that the strength in his arms and shoulders had gone† (Cheever 2050). Now Merrill is starting to have thoughts about reality and questions what is happening to him. He began his journey youthful and enthusiastic, but now he feels weak and worried. He is unsure of himself and is beginning to lose himself a bit. In a critical essay regarding Cheever’s use of Merrill’s transition, Hal Blythe and Charlie Sweet say: â€Å"Perhaps the second half of the story, in which Ned is an older man, is the reality, and the midsummer beginning of his water odyssey is just a happy reverie of better times. † Merrill has been ignoring reality and he has lied to himself, thinking back to his youth where his live was probably much better. He has denied himself the truth and now he does not know who he truly is. Merrill’s confusion builds up as he spirals down. Looking at â€Å"The Swimmer† through the liberal humanist lens also suggests that the story is about how living in a dream world while avoiding reality will not change your fate and it will ultimately catch up with you. Throughout the story, Neddy Merrill is living life as he dreams, but it is not the real world. He is an old, lonely man who has severely lost his way. At the end of the story, Merrill finally reaches his destination: his house, but he finds his home far different that he once remembered. He shouted, pounded on the door tried to force it with his shoulder, and then, looking in at the windows, saw that the place was empty† (Cheever 2051). Merrill has been living in a dream world for so long that he didn’t even know what had happened to his house and his family. He has tried to avoid his problems by drinking and partying but he cannot run away from it. In Greg Barnhisel’s work overview of â€Å"The Swimmer†, he describes Neddy’s fate when he finally makes arrives at his home: â€Å"All of the unidentified troubles now confront the traveler [Neddy] and he can no longer escape them. Neddy Merrill tried to outrun fate, but fate, in the end, won the race. Merrill is left with no home, no family, and no future. Looking at â€Å"The Swimmer† through the liberal humanist lens also suggests that the story is about how time is a force of nature that cannot be controlled and attempts to control it will destroy one’s sense of reality. All his life, Neddy Merrill has been constantly going through the same routine. Merrill has had to attend neighbor’s parties, drink himself into inebriation, and show off his status around town. His life has been a cycle that he himself has tried to shape. He believes he can continue this pattern forever, but he can’t. Everything eventually changes, yet Neddy Merrill denies himself this fact. During his water journey, however, Merrill begins to see how futile his efforts really were, â€Å"The force of the wind had stripped a maple of its red and yellow leaves and scattered them over the grass and water† (Cheever 2046). Merrill, who began his journey on a beautiful summer day, is now faced with the fall season and begins to see time in full force. For Neddy, time represents an enemy, something that he wishes to control. Time, despite Neddy’s attempts through repetition to stop it, has not been standing still. Nature is in constant motion† (Blythe). Merrill’s journey has led him to realize how useless his repetitious lifestyle has been. He now questions his worth and wonders where his life is taking him. Merrill is a broken man and has fallen to his lowest point. Looking at â€Å"The Swimmer† thr ough the Marxist lens suggests that the story is really about how easily social statuses can change under different circumstances and how blinding hubris can be. Neddy Merrill is clearly a man of means in the story. For one thing, it is clear he can afford to spend time during midday to enjoy the afternoon by the poolside. Living in an upper-middle class suburban neighborhood has given Neddy many benefits. But his extravagant lifestyle takes a turn for the worse once he starts his journey home. As Neddy swims home, cold and half-naked, he begins to â€Å"crash† neighbors’ parties as he attempts to swim through everyone’s pool and is not very welcome. â€Å"The bartender served him but he served him rudely. His was a world in which the caterer’s men kept the social score, and to be rebuffed by a part-time barkeep meant that he had suffered some loss of social esteem† (Cheever 2049). Neddy is obviously offended by being rebuffed by some lowly barkeep. He considers himself of a higher status and power, yet by undertaking such a journey, Neddy has left himself susceptible to the very discrimination he gives to others. By dropping by without invitation, Merrill is now seen by his peers as somewhat of a scavenger, like the unwanted guest at dinner parties. In a critical essay describing ethnic origins in the story, Michael D. Byrne says: â€Å"Of the English or German neighbors in this part of the story, two have no pools and two rebuff Neddy for his casual arrogance in dropping by. † Because his actions, Neddy has turned himself into a â€Å"Wandering Jew† of sorts and his attempts to get free drinks at a party is looked down upon by his English and German neighbors. Neddy has always tried to live life to the fullest but his attempt at something unique has failed and Neddy is cast aside by society. Looking at â€Å"The Swimmer† through the Marxist lens also suggests that the story is about how high social status and wealth will cause relationships to be ruined and, eventually, lead to isolation. Neddy Merrill enjoys his cocktails and fancy dinners and thinks his life is all good. He chooses which parties he wants to go to and which to avoid. He thinks he has it all made. But all that materialism doesn’t end well for him. He ignores those he believes are beneath him, ruining social bonds. When Neddy arrives at a neighbor’s party, he reminds himself of what he thinks of them. They did not belong to Neddy’s set – they were not even on Lucinda’s Christmas card list† (Cheever 2049). Cheever is trying to show how Merrill believes his is so high up the social ladder that he is embarrassed to be at such lower person’s house. Merrill thinks of life as black and white, rich and poor, and him and everyone else, â€Å"Neddy, living in the suburban world of the American Dream, dwells upon social position and materialism† (Blythe). All Neddy has focused and lived his life by was what he had in his wallet. For him, his large houses and luxurious lifestyle placed him above his peers. His attitude has given him many enemies and Merrill is now all alone. In a critical essay, Neddy’s attitude towards his neighbors is analyzed further, â€Å"Merrill’s withdrawal into a private vision, therefore, should not be interpreted as a noble ambition; rather, it reflects his refusal to acknowledge some more essential, important connections with others† (Riley). He has thrived on his social status and material wealth, but in the end, that was all he had. Merrill is now left alone with no friends to help him. Looking at â€Å"The Swimmer†, however, through my personal reader-response lens, I see a man who is simply trying to find purpose in his life. Neddy seems to have it all, a nice suburban house, a great neighborhood, and all the pool parties he can attend, yet I feel there is something missing in his life and he feels that void in his life too. In a way, we are all like Neddy Merrill. We all want to answers to our questions, especially â€Å"what’s the meaning of life? † The idea of that question is too big to grasp or understand. I think that is the biggest reason why Neddy lives the way he does. He tries to avoid thinking about his purpose by filling his life with all these insignificant things that he really does not need or care about. Like many others, I am also trying to find my way through the world and discover what exactly my purpose in life is. I know it will not be something crazy like saving the world from aliens, but a sense of direction is always welcome. I think everybody can relate to Neddy in more ways than we realize. Our biggest gift is our life and I think we have to find some meaning in it, or we will all end up like poor Neddy with no hope for his future.

Courtroom Workgroups Essay

In The United States criminal justice system the informal arrangement between a criminal prosecutor, criminal defense attorney, and the judicial officeris called a courtroom work group. The courtroom workgroup was proposed by Eisenstein and Jacob in 1977 to explain their observations of the ways courts, especially lower level courts, actually come to decisions. This foundational concept in the academic discipline of criminal justice identifies the seemingly opposing courtroom participants as collaborators in â€Å"doing justice.† Efficient courtroom workgroups seek to process cases rather than dispense justice. Because the courtroom workgroup deviates from the public idea of how justice works, it has developed a irregular set of virtues to continue its work and ease daily life for its participants. The academic theory of the courtroom workgroup has four cornerstone concepts that recognize this fact: Speed, Pragmatic Cynicism, Collegiality, and Secrecy. This has been proved to greater and lesser extents in different courts. Defendants are assumed to be guilty. The procedural merits of the case are the true determinative factors of an outcome. Prosecutors and defense attorneys engage in a comparison of charges against possible procedural flaws and possible defenses to determine at the going rate for a crime. These factors are used to figure out how much punishment the plea bargain will offer. For example, group relationships and the desire to â€Å"keep† a healthy working relationship are important to gr oup members. The workings of the courtroom group and the â€Å"going rate† for given crimes are not matters for public disclosure. Estimates can be given to clients, but usually uttered in terms of the prosecution’s willingness to negotiate. (Summarized by O’Connor, T.R., 2005) The courtroom workgroup is a tool for prosecutorial discretion. Many different techniques are used to convince the defendant that the evidence against him or her is overwhelming. The defendant may be persuaded to plead guilty to a few of the charges in return for not being prosecuted for the remaining charges. To convince the defendant that the risk of not pleading guilty is intolerable, â€Å"charge stacking† is a process by which police and prosecutors create a case with numerous charges or numerous instances of the  same charge to convince the defendant that the risk of not pleading guilty is intolerable. Many indirect pressures come together to boost participation in the courtroom workgroup. Defense attorneys in public defender offices often do not have enough time to prepare a case in detail for all of their clients. Further, they often do not have the budget to fully investigate the facts of a case through either staff or private investigators. They often must rely solely on police reports for such information. In some jurisdictions, clients do not meet their attorneys until they are in court. Typically, public defenders will meet briefly with clients in holding facilities or jails. The defense attorney defends his or her client by seeking less punishment. The courtroom workgroup is, in some sense, a response to a lack of resources for public defenders. Huemann (1977) indicates that many defense attorneys feel pressured to keep up with their caseloads. This pressure can be revealed in the courtroom through disapproval by the judge for delays. Many indirect pressures come together to boost participation in the courtroom workgroup. While many of the higher level prosecutions still follow the model, there is evidence that lower-level proceedings follow the courtroom workgroup model. The thought of a courtroom workgroup is associated with plea bargaining. The courtroom workgroup shows significant analytical power in overburdened courts dealing with large caseloads. The courtroom workgroup model is best suited to explain jurisdictions where defense attorneys are more or less permanently assigned, but even occasionally appointed lawyers can participate in these practices. Boland, Brady, Tyson, & Bassler (1983) indicate that approximately 90 percent of criminal cases are settled by plea bargain. This figure appears to be stable over the last twenty years (Rainville & Reaves, 2003). Some collaborative efforts on the part of the courtroom workgroup simply must be present to facilitate this high percentage of pleas. Sources Boland, B., Brady, E., Tyson, H., & Bassler, J. (1983). The prosecution of felony arrests. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics. Eisenstein, J. & Jacob, H. (1977). Felony Justice: An organizational analysis of  criminal courts. Boston : Little & Brown. Huemann, M. (1977). Plea bargaining: The experiences of prosecutors, judges, and defense attorneys. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago, Il. O’Connor, T.R. (2005). Court organizational issues: The courtroom workgroup. http://faculty.ncwc.edu/TOConnor/417/417lect12.htm Rainville, G. & Reaves, B.A. (2003). Felony defendants in large urban counties. Washington D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics.